Introduction

According to Merriam-Webster, masculinity is the “quality or nature of the male sex.” However, we recognize that this definition is ambiguous, lacking a description of any concrete properties associated with manliness and failing to acknowledge the different cultural and contextual connotations of this word.

Traditionally, masculinity has been defined as a set of values men should live up to. In their definition of traditional masculinity, Mincey, Alfonso, Hackney, and Luque refer to traditional masculine values that emphasize strength, power, toughness, and a lack of emotion.1 However, historically, this stereotypical definition has been very rigid and does not encapsulate the diversity of manhood and the variety of ways one can express their masculinity. In contemporary times, this definition and the masculine values it presents are often referred to as “toxic masculinity.” Additionally, this traditional definition does not explain the role of masculinity in creating and maintaining both racial and gender hierarchies.

Traditional masculine values are part of the larger theme of hegemonic masculinity. Coined by prominent sociologist R.W. Connell, the term “hegemonic masculinity” refers to a normative standard of manhood that subordinates women and alienates other expressions of masculinity (Connell, Messerschmidt, and Sociologists for Women in Society 2005, 832). Traditional notions of masculinity emphasize homophobia, the rigid male-female gender hierarchy, and certain characteristics, such as aggression and dominance (Connell, Messerschmidt, and Sociologists for Women in Society 2005, 832–50). Although the term has been widely referenced within gender and masculinity studies, it has been critiqued by sociologists in the masculinity studies field for its inadvertent overgeneralization of men, neglecting the significance of culture on notions of masculinity.

In recent years, more and more people have begun to redefine masculinity in an effort to be inclusive and acknowledge the wide scope of manhood. For example, many individuals are including values such as empathy, kindness, openness, and vulnerability as they rethink expressions of masculinity.2

Our Definition

While we understand that the traditional definition of masculinity and the values associated with that definition play a significant role in the overall structure of society and in individuals’, both men’s and women’s, lived experiences, we want to move away from this definition. Instead of using a rigid definition that limits the expression of manhood, we believe that masculinity is a far more flexible idea. Rather than imposing a singular definition of masculinity, specifically one from a Eurocentrist lens, onto people across various cultures and time periods, we believe that masculinity has a plurality of definitions, each of which is built to align with the time, place, and culture of the people it represents. In contrast to the traditional values of masculinity, we believe that vulnerability, expression, and honesty are central to masculinity. 

Hegemonic Masculinity and Its Shortcomings

Hegemonic and traditional notions of masculinity neglect the fluidity of manhood or manliness, and instead assert that masculinity exists as the antithesis to “effeminate” practices or femininity.3 Coined by sociologist R.W. Connell, “hegemonic masculinity” refers to a culturally normative and historical ideal of manhood in relation to subordinate, complicit, and marginalized masculinities and the subordination of women.4 Essentially, hegemonic masculinity trumps all other forms of masculinity by enforcing a gender-based hierarchy, historically alienating gay men, and marginalizing men with little social power.        

While Connell’s theory has been used as the standard for measuring the relational aspects of masculinities at a macro level, her social theory fails to incorporate the lived and social experiences of non-White, heterosexual men. It inadvertently adopts a Eurocentrist lens; because men of color were historically socioeconomically disempowered, they are “othered” in a system rooted in white supremacy and designed to exclude non-White men.

Masculinity in Film

Film has played a major role in shaping how many people think masculinity is supposed to look. A lot of popular movies show men as tough, quiet, and emotionally controlled, and they reward characters who act through force instead of communication. These patterns match the traditional and Eurocentric idea that men should be strong and closed off. At the same time, many films also reveal how limited this model is, because the men who follow it often struggle with isolation, confusion, or anger. Additionally, more contemporary films have started to present masculinity in more fluid perspectives than they traditionally have. It’s really when you look at different films side by side that masculinity stops looking like a fixed identity and starts to look like something that’s molded by culture and environment.

Examples of Masculinity in Film

Fight Club had a very big impact on how a lot of young men came to think about masculinity, in terms of what it means to be a man, how to compare themselves to others, and how to treat others. The film shows men who feel lost in a world that tells them to be successful but emotionless, and who turn to violence to feel in control again.5 It reflects how traditional and hegemonic ideas of masculinity, like strength, toughness, and dominance, can become the only way that men are taught to feel powerful. What’s interesting is that the movie both criticizes and feeds into those same ideals. As a piece of media, it has had a very lasting cultural effect. Many viewers, often impressionable teenage boys, take its message at face value, glorifying the violence and rebellion displayed instead of questioning it.

Tyler Durden, portrayed by Brad Pitt in Fight Club. In the foreground, Tyler Durden looks at something the camera does not capture. He has blood on his abdomen, one black eye, and a cigarette in his mouth. He is surrounded by men with scars and bruises on their faces who are also looking at something the camera does not capture.
Tyler Durden, portrayed by Brad Pitt in Fight Club.6

Classic Westerns have also served to perpetuate aspects of hegemonic masculinity in society. The typical protagonist cowboy rarely speaks, hides his emotions, and handles every problem alone. He often treats women as people who need protection or as background figures who exist to support his journey, reinforcing the idea that men should lead and women should stay on the sidelines. These characters rely on their toughness to prove themselves, and audiences were taught to read that behavior as inherent rather than constructed. The problem is that this model both shuts out any idea of masculinity that involves “softer” traits and creates unattainable standards for impressionable men, based on a very narrow image of manhood.          

The 2016 film Moonlight expresses masculinity as a fluid journey rather than a rigid mold. Chiron is shown to be deeply shaped by his environment and relationships, allowing his identity to evolve naturally throughout the chapters.7 This is seen through the film’s embrace of emotional depth, where manhood is presented not as a single standard, but as a set of possibilities that change alongside his context, which is a breath of fresh air from how it’s portrayed in other films. This movie challenges traditional norms and provides audiences with an alternative model of masculinity by capturing it in a broad and open lens, depicting vulnerability and emotional expression. Viewers are exposed to the idea that gender roles are socially constructed and adaptable, which may influence how they understand and interpret masculinity in their own lives.

Chiron (as Little) and Kevin in Moonlight. In the frame, there are two Black children speaking across from each other. Chiron, the child on the left, is wearing a red and striped shirt. Kevin, the child on the right, is wearing a blue plaid shirt and a white shirt underneath. They are speaking in front of a sports field.
Chiron (as Little) and Kevin in Moonlight.8

African American Masculinity

Traditional masculinity is deeply intertwined with white ideals of masculinity, making it an unfit measure of African American men’s, and any non-white men’s “manliness.” Furthermore, the ideal of economic success that plays a role in white, hegemonic masculinity is directly built on the systemic exploitation of African Americans. Additionally, traditional masculine values such as stoicism and repression of emotion come into conflict with certain values that are more commonly promoted in African American communities.9 In attempts to conform to white masculine values, African American men can experience “racist gender role strain,” a term Rogers, Sperry, and Levant define as the struggle African American men face in fulfilling traditional, white expectations of masculinity due to the effects of institutionalized racism.10 Therefore, it is crucial to acknowledge the role race plays in masculinity and, as many scholars suggest, to define African American masculinity independently of traditional hegemonic masculinity.

When interviewing black men in college, researchers Mincey, Alfonso, Hackney, and Luque found a significant difference in the men’s understanding of masculinity generally and their understanding of what it means to be a black man. They found that feeling the need to prove oneself was central to the men’s definition of black masculinity.11 Additionally, in their own study of African American masculinity, researchers Rogers, Sperry, and Levant found that themes of leadership, structural oppression, fatherhood, autonomy, and African American values such as religion and spirituality were critical to the men’s understanding of masculinity, and specifically what it means to be an African American man.

Asian American Masculinity

Like many other racial groups, the historical stereotypes Asian men face, especially the “model minority” stereotype, are used to lift up white men and uphold a racist patriarchy, at the cost of Asian American and other non-white men. Traditional stereotypes paint Asian American men as unassertive, weak, and quietly hardworking. These stereotypical traits directly oppose traditional hegemonic masculine traits of strength, power, and control, contributing to the biased idea that Asian American men are unmasculine. In their article exploring the evolution of public perception of Asian American masculinity, Chong and Kim explain that there has been a recent shift with many Asian American men currently conforming to hegemonic masculine ideals in order to live up to white masculine expectations. Based on their interviews with many Asian American men, Chong and Kim determine that there is a clear struggle many Asian American men face due to conflicting societal expectations between their race and gender.12 Hegemonic masculinity uses both the patriarchy and racial hierarchies in order to place white men at the top of society, leaving men of racial minorities, such as Asian American men, to deal with internal conflicts as they navigate conflicting racial and gender expectations.

Native American Masculinity

Native American masculinity cannot be understood through the same rigid, Eurocentric standards that have historically bestowed traits of dominance and emotional restraint on what manhood means. Those frameworks are rooted in colonial power structures that misrepresent Indigenous men and completely counter the diversity of masculine expression that existed before colonization. Professor Dianne Baumann explains that settler colonialism constructed Native men as “wild,” “threatening,” and inherently violent in order to justify control. This process produced what she terms “toxic gendering,” which is a racialized version of masculinity that portrays Native men as both hypermasculine and inferior to white men.13 These ideas continue to shape how Native men are treated by institutions like the legal system and law enforcement, where they experience disproportionately high rates of homicide and police violence.

Baumann’s analysis aligns with the belief that masculinity is flexible and culturally specific rather than fixed. Through examples such as Gyasi Ross’s account of being perceived as a “scary brown man” and the characters in Sherman Alexie’s Reservation Blues, the article shows how Native men try to navigate through and resist these stereotypes. Oftentimes, these stereotypes are also internalized, which can have crippling effects. Her article also introduces us to the concept of “thrivance”, which is a way of living despite harm or oppression that emphasizes healing and growth.14 This really showcases a cultural understanding of masculinity that’s grounded in pillars of community, generosity, and a deep care for one’s community, rather than one of aggression and dominance, like how it’s misunderstood. Indigenous traits like these directly challenge colonial expectations of what it means to be a man. In this sense, Native American masculinity supports our broader argument that manhood is not a single universal model, but rather multiple evolving identities that are shaped by culture and experience.

African Masculinities

Much like Indigenous communities in North America, many African societies experienced a similar process of cultural disruption in the aftermath of European colonization. Both contexts reveal how colonization imposed Eurocentric ideals of masculinity that conflicted with indigenous understandings of manhood rooted in community and spirituality. Understanding African masculinities, therefore, requires a postcolonial perspective by decentering the perspectives of the colonizers and instead focusing on the lives of marginalized peoples after European colonization. Analyzing postcolonial masculinity reflects efforts to reinterpret contemporary constructions of African masculinities by blending pre-colonial values with the influences of colonialism and globalization. 

Before colonization, masculinity was demonstrated through violence, the concept of Ubuntu, and the reverence of elders. As socio-anthropologists Christophe Broqua and Anne Doquet note, violence, in pre-colonial African societies, was heralded as part of the masculine condition. In the 17th century, the men among the Ohafia-Igbo of southern Nigeria demonstrated ogaranya, or masculinity, by collecting human head trophies after battles. This warrior, “bloody avenger,” ideal determined a man’s social status and prospects for marriage. In the post-colonial era, violence has since shifted from an integral factor in defining masculinity to something that is no longer valued as an element of masculinity. Another pre-colonial value prevalent in African society is Ubuntu, also known as African humanism, which emphasizes the interconnectedness of people and communal responsibility. Although the term was originally popularized during the decolonization era, its concept has roots in pre-colonial Africa. For instance, in the 19th and 20th centuries, West Africans strived to attain the “Big Man” ideal. The “Big Man” possessed vast amounts of wealth and patriarchal dominance while giving back to their communities. This form of hegemonic masculinity prioritized amassing wealth, not only to increase the individual, but also to fulfill Ubuntu. Even in contemporary African societies, Ubuntu continues to inform masculinities and the roles of men in their communities. Lastly, the power and respect for elders were and remain a critical pillar in African masculinity. In kingdoms, such as the Yoruba kingdom of Nigeria and the Ashanti kingdom of Ghana, authority rested in the hands of elder kings and chiefs. In less centralized societies, clanheads reserved authority. In pre-colonial African societies, elders held vast amounts of power. The influence of colonialism has weakened the power of elders, but respecting and taking care of elders is still considered an integral factor in constructing masculinity.

The cover of Nigerian author Chinua Achebe's book Things Fall Apart. The book's cover has a red background. There are also two heads filled with African print and illustrations. On the left, the head is colored white and has its mouth open. On the right, there is a head colored black with its mouth open, as well. The words "Things Fall Apart" is in black and written on the top of these heads. The words "Chinua Achebe" are written in yellow and placed at the top of the cover.
Chinua Achebe’s book Things Fall Apart examines the relationship between culture, tradition, and masculinity in pre-colonial Nigerian society.15

While adopting a contemporary lens, critics of R.W. Connell’s definition of hegemonic masculinity argue that it promotes a monolithic view of masculinity that inherently excludes non-White men. As Kopano Ratele, a professor of Masculinity and Decolonial Psychology at Stellenbosch University, posits, hegemonic masculinity cannot apply to Black masculinities in South Africa because Black South African men experience subordination in other capacities. The construction of African masculinities includes a unique combination of geography, class, age, and interactions with femininity. Recognizing this intersection is crucial to acknowledging how postcolonial African masculinities are uniquely constructed. The contemporary model of masculinity within African societies includes providing for one’s family, marrying, fathering, and building a house.16 However, increased women’s participation in the paid labor market and a lack of a steady income for many young African men challenge the expectations of men as the providers and economic breadwinners of their households.17 Additionally, violence caused by war and gender-based violence influences some African men’s perceptions of their sexuality and heteronormativity. Even as shifts in gender roles and the presence of violence shape African masculinities, they continue to evolve, demonstrating that there is no single expression of manhood that can encompass the complexities of African male identities.

In this eD TV interview, activist and speaker Dr. Baba Buntu and financial reporter KC Rottok discuss the concept of African masculinity in the modern age.18

Redefining Masculinity

While there have always been people who have challenged the concept of hegemonic masculinity, recently, people’s efforts to move away from traditional hegemonic ways of defining masculinity have become more visible, pushing for a mainstream shift in redefining masculinity to be broader and more inclusive. As the term “toxic masculinity” has become more popular, people are realizing the constraining forces that traditional masculine values, such as strength, control, and a lack of emotion, impose. Rather than using masculine values as a way to maintain a social hierarchy in which white men hold all the power, many people are using modern masculinity as a way to lift all men up, regardless of their race, and celebrate their diversity. Many people are using art as a means of expressing their expanded views of masculinity and what it should look like.

Devan Shimoyama is an artist who explores the meaning of masculinity, and especially black masculinity, through his multimedia art pieces. Many of the works of art in his portfolio show different versions of masculinity, all emphasizing traits that aren’t traditionally considered masculine.

The image shows a Black man in the foreground. He is painted in hues of purple and yellow, staring with dark purple on his forehead and neon yellow on his lips and neck. His hair and beard are a patchy grey color. He wears a bedazzled purple barbershop cape adorned with diamonds. His eyes and face are covered with diamonds. Next to him, a woman with red nails holds a razor. Behind him, there is a checkered wall and a crown.
Crowned by Devan Shimoyama.19
In the foreground, there is a younger Black male in a barbershop. His hair is a grey, patchy color. His face is colored in with hues of light green and orange, with the lightest shade starting from his forehead to the darkest shade around his neck. His eyes are covered by roses, and his face has two diamonds on it. He is also wearing a yellow barbershop cape. Behind him, there is a wallpaper of flowers, a razor, and Black haircare products on a shelf.
Shape Up and a Trim by Devan Shimoyama.20

One example is his Barbershop series, which represents a more inclusive, expansive definition of masculinity that he hopes for. He included materials such as rhinestones in order to counter the traditional binary between femininity and masculinity. Additionally, the paintings show the men crying in order to push back against traditional masculine norms that say men shouldn’t cry.

There is a hoodie adorned with foliage and pink, yellow, and orange flowers.
February II, created by Devan Shimoyama21

In his Hypermasculinity series, he showcases the real dangers of black masculinity stereotypes. He uses a hoodie as his canvas, honoring the memory of Trayvon Martin, a black teenage boy who was killed by a prejudiced police officer who thought Martin was “suspicious.” Additionally, the hoodie is covered in flowers, sequins, and jewelry, encapsulating the diversity of masculinity and fighting against the narrative of black hypermasculinity and the idea that black men are tough yet dangerous.22

These two series of Shimoyama’s expand the concept of masculinity to include more traditionally feminine elements and highlight the real, potentially fatal, consequences of the stereotypes associated with black masculinity.

A portrait of President Barack Obama. He stares at the camera with his hands folded on his lap as he sits on a chair. Behind me, there is foliage and flowers.
President Barack Obama by Kehinde Wiley.23

Curated for the Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery’s “America’s Presidents” exhibition, artist Kehinde Wiley’s President Barack Obama epitomizes the discussions of Black masculinity and the oppositional gaze that defines so much of his work. Wiley’s work positions the former President in a wooden chair amid flowers and other foliage. The decision to portray the President, who sullenly looks at his subject, before a vibrant and effeminate background challenges traditional notions of Black masculinity. As a Black and queer artist, Wiley constantly explores the intersection of his identity and power structures by blending historical imagery with flamboyant backgrounds in his work. Additionally, his work shifts the harmful narrative of Black men from violent and intimidating to objects of desire. Wiley’s President Barack Obama piece, along with his other pieces, amplifies the Black voice and shifts Black bodies to objects of desire and respect.

  1. Mincey, Krista, Moya Alfonso, Amy Hackney, and John Luque. “Understanding Masculinity in Undergraduate African American Men: A Qualitative Study.” American Journal of Men’s Health 8, no. 5 (2014): 387–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988313515900. ↩︎
  2. “Redefining Masculinity in the Inclusivity Age: A Guide.” December 22, 2024. https://themichaelisgroup.com/blog/redefining-masculinity-in-the-inclusivity-age/. ↩︎
  3. Griffin, B. J. “Hegemonic masculinity as a historical problem.” (2018). ↩︎
  4. Connell, Robert W., and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept.” Gender & society 19, no. 6 (2005): 829-859. ↩︎
  5. Fight Club. Directed by David Fincher. Los Angeles: 20th Century Fox, 1999. ↩︎
  6. Fincher, David. Film still from Fight Club. 1999. Film still. n.d. From Fight Club, directed by David Fincher, Fox 2000 Pictures and 20th Century Fox. Image file provided by user. ↩︎
  7. Moonlight. Directed by Barry Jenkins. Los Angeles: A24, 2016. ↩︎
  8. Jenkins, Barry, Film still from Moonlight. 2016. Film still. n.d. From Moonlight, directed by Barry Jenkins, A24. Image file provided by user. ↩︎
  9. White, J. L., & Cones, J. H. (1999). Black men emerging:  Facing the past and seizing a future in America. New York,  NY: W. H. Freeman. ↩︎
  10. Rogers, Baron K., Heather A. Sperry, and Ronald F. Levant. “Masculinities among African American Men: An Intersectional Perspective.” Psychology of Men & Masculinities 16, no. 4 (10, 2015): 416-425. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039082. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/masculinities-among-african-american-men/docview/1689317628/se-2. ↩︎
  11. Mincey et al., “Understanding Masculinity in Undergraduate African American Men.” ↩︎
  12. Chong, Kelly H, and Nadia Y Kim. “‘The Model Man’: Shifting Perceptions of Asian American Masculinity and the Renegotiation of a Racial Hierarchy of Desire.” Men and Masculinities 25, no. 5 (2022): 674-697. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X211043563. ↩︎
  13.  Baumann, Dianne. “Beyond Fistfights and Basketball: Reclaiming Native American Masculinity.” Humans 4, no. 2 (2024): 200-211. https://doi.org/10.3390/humans4020012 ↩︎
  14. Ibid. ↩︎
  15. Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart (Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1986). ↩︎
  16. Ammann, Carole, and Sandra Staudacher. 2021. “Masculinities in Africa beyond Crisis: Complexity, Fluidity, and Intersectionality.” Gender, Place & Culture 28 (6): 759–68. doi:10.1080/0966369X.2020.1846019. ↩︎
  17. Ibid. ↩︎
  18. Ebukhosiniw.youtube.com/watch?v=PQBZsosM7qc. ↩︎
  19. Shimoyama, Devan. Crowned. 2017. Mixed media painting, 48×36 inches. De Buck Gallery. https://www.debuckgallery.com/work/crowned-2017/. ↩︎
  20. Shimoyama, Devan. Shape Up and a Trim. 2017. Mixed media painting, 48×36 inches. De Buck Gallery. Devan Shimoyama | Shape Up and a Trim (2017) | Artsy. ↩︎
  21. “Artist Devan Shimoyama Is Redefining Masculinity.” June 14, 2019. https://www.dannywithlove.com/blog/artist-devan-shimoyama-is-redefining-masculinity. ↩︎
  22. Ibid. ↩︎
  23. Wiley, Kehinde. President Barack Obama. 2018. Oil Painting. 84×60 inches. Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery. Barack Obama | National Portrait Gallery ↩︎

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