References

The Question

(1) Roth T. Insomnia: definition, prevalence, etiology, and consequences. J Clin Sleep Med. 2007;3(5 Suppl):S7-S10. Link

(2) Neubauer DN. The evolution and development of insomnia pharmacotherapies. J Clin Sleep Med. 2007;3(5 Suppl):S11-S15. Link

(3) Schulz, H.; Salzarulo, P. The Development of Sleep Medicine: A Historical Sketch. J Clin Sleep Med 2016, 12 (7), 1041–1052. Link

The Answer

(4) Kay DB, Buysse DJ. Hyperarousal and Beyond: New Insights to the Pathophysiology of Insomnia Disorder through Functional Neuroimaging Studies. Brain Sci. 2017;7(3):23. Published 2017 Feb 23. doi:10.3390/brainsci7030023 Link

(5) National Center for Biotechnology Information (2022). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 119, gamma-Aminobutyric acid. Retrieved December 1, 2022 from Link

(6) Rihel J, Schier AF. Sites of action of sleep and wake drugs: insights from model organisms. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2013;23(5):831-840. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2013.04.010 Link

(7) Agosto J, Choi JC, Parisky KM, Stilwell G, Rosbash M, Griffith LC. Modulation of GABAA receptor desensitization uncouples sleep onset and maintenance in Drosophila. Nat Neurosci. 2008;11(3):354-359. doi:10.1038/nn2046 Link

(8) Griffin CE 3rd, Kaye AM, Bueno FR, Kaye AD. Benzodiazepine pharmacology and central nervous system-mediated effects. Ochsner J. 2013;13(2):214-223. Link

(9) Morlock EV, Czajkowski C. Different residues in the GABAA receptor benzodiazepine binding pocket mediate benzodiazepine efficacy and binding. Mol Pharmacol. 2011;80(1):14-22. doi:10.1124/mol.110.069542 Link

(10) Monti, J.M., Monti, D. (2010). Non-Benzodiazepine Agonists. In: Stolerman, I.P. (eds) Encyclopedia of Psychopharmacology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Link

(11) Skibiski J, Abdijadid S. Barbiturates. [Updated 2022 Aug 5]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Link

(12) Scammell TE, Winrow CJ. Orexin receptors: pharmacology and therapeutic opportunities. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2011;51:243-266. doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010510-100528 Link

(13) Shi, Y.-F.; Han, Y.; Su, Y.-T.; Yang, J.-H.; Yu, Y.-Q. Silencing of Cholinergic Basal Forebrain Neurons Using Archaerhodopsin Prolongs Slow-Wave Sleep in Mice. PLOS ONE 2015, 10 (7), e0130130. Link

(14) Bennett T, Bray D, Neville MW. Suvorexant, a dual orexin receptor antagonist for the management of insomnia. P T. 2014;39(4):264-266. Link

(15) LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2012-. Telaprevir. [Updated 2022 Jan 26]. Link

(16) Zisapel, N. New Perspectives on the Role of Melatonin in Human Sleep, Circadian Rhythms and Their Regulation. Br J Pharmacol 2018, 175 (16), 3190–3199. Link.

(17) Doghramji K. Melatonin and its receptors: a new class of sleep-promoting agents. J Clin Sleep Med. 2007;3(5 Suppl):S17-S23. Link

(18) Scammell TE, Jackson AC, Franks NP, Wisden W, Dauvilliers Y. Histamine: neural circuits and new medications. Sleep. 2019 Jan;42(1). DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsy183. PMID: 30239935; PMCID: PMC6335869. Link

GABAa Receptor Pathway

(19) Chen, X.; van Gerven, J.; Cohen, A.; Jacobs, G. Human Pharmacology of Positive GABA-A Subtype-Selective Receptor Modulators for the Treatment of Anxiety. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 2019, 40 (5), 571–582. Link

(20) Goetz, T et al. “GABA(A) receptors: structure and function in the basal ganglia.” Progress in brain research vol. 160 (2007): 21-41. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(06)60003-4 Link

(21) Levenson, Jessica C et al. “The pathophysiology of insomnia.” Chest vol. 147,4 (2015): 1179-1192. doi:10.1378/chest.14-1617 Link

GABA-transaminase Mechanism

(22) Silverman, R. B. Design and Mechanism of GABA Aminotransferase Inactivators. Treatments for Epilepsies and Addictions. Chem. Rev. 2018, 118 (7), 4037–4070. Link

(23) Olsen RW, DeLorey TM. GABA Synthesis, Uptake and Release. In: Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, et al., editors. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. 6th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1999. Available from: Link

Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase Mechanism

(24) Alan N. Bateson, “Further potential of the GABA receptor in the treatment of insomnia”, Sleep Medicine, Volume 7, Supplement 1, 2006, Pages S3-S9, ISSN 1389-9457, Link.

(25) Lehninger, D, Nelson, D. L & Cox, M. M. Principles of Biochemistry, Vol 5. Published by Freeman W. H. 662-663 (2005)

Methods of Investigation

(26) Tognarelli JM, Dawood M, Shariff MI, et al. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Principles and Techniques: Lessons for Clinicians. J Clin Exp Hepatol. 2015;5(4):320-328. doi:10.1016/j.jceh.2015.10.006 Link

(27) Linköping University. Fatty liver diagnosis improved with magnetic resonance. Link

(28) Spiegelhalder, K.; Regen, W.; Baglioni, C.; Nissen, C.; Riemann, D.; Kyle, S. D. Neuroimaging Insights into Insomnia. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 2015, 15 (3), 9. Link

(29) Chang, L.; Cloak, C. C.; Ernst, T. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Studies of GABA in Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2003, 64, 7–14. Link

Papers

(30) Plante, D. T.; Jensen, J. E.; Schoerning, L.; Winkelman, J. W. Reduced γ-Aminobutyric Acid in Occipital and Anterior Cingulate Cortices in Primary Insomnia: A Link to Major Depressive Disorder? Neuropsychopharmacology 2012, 37 (6), 1548–1557. Link

(31) National Center for Biotechnology Information (2022). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 2554, Carbamazepine. Retrieved December 1, 2022 from Link